Humanities

The humanities are academic disciplines which study the human condition, using methods that are primarily analytic, critical, or speculative, as distinguished from the mainly empirical approaches of the natural and social sciences.

History of the humanities

In the West, the study of the humanities can be traced to ancient Greece, as the basis of a broad education for citizens. During Roman times, the concept of the seven liberal arts evolved, involving grammar, rhetoric and logic (the trivium), along with arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music (the quadrivium). These subjects formed the bulk of medieval education, with the emphasis being on the humanities as skills or "ways of doing."

A major shift occurred with the Renaissance humanism of the fifteenth century, when the humanities began to be regarded as subjects to be studied rather than practiced, with a corresponding shift away from the traditional fields into areas such as literature and history. In the 20th century, this view was in turn challenged by the postmodernist movement, which sought to redefine the humanities in more egalitarian terms suitable for a democratic society.

Different kind of Microscope

Optical Microscope: The first ever created. The optical microscope has one or two lenses that work to enlarge and enhance images placed between the lower-most lens and the light source.

Simple Optical Microscope—uses one lens, the convex lens, in the magnifying process. This kind of microscope was used by Anton Van Leeuwenhoek during the late-sixteen and early-seventeenth centuries, around the time that the microscope was invented.

Compound Optical Microscope—has two lenses, one for the eyepiece to serve the ocular perspective and one of short focal length for objective perspective. Multiple lenses work to minimize both chromatic and spherical aberrations so that the view is unobstructed and uncorrupted.

Stereo Microscope: This is also known as the Dissecting Microscope, and uses two separate optical shafts (for both eyes) to create a three-dimensional image of the object through two slightly different viewpoints. This kind of microscope conducts microsurgery, dissection, watch-making, small circuit board manufacturing, etc.

Inverted Microscope: This kind of microscope views objects from an inverted position than that of regular microscopes. The inverted microscope specializes in the study of cell cultures in liquid.

Petrographic Microscope: This kind of microscope features a polarizing filter, a rotating stage, and gypsum plate. Petrographic Microscopes specialize in the study of inorganic substances whose properties tend to alter through shifting perspective.

Pocket Microscope: This kind of microscope consists of a single shaft with an eye piece at one end and an adjustable objective lens at the other. This old-style microscope has a case for easy carry.

Electron Microscopes: This kind of microscope employs electron waves running parallel to a magnetic field providing higher resolution. Two Electron Microscopes are the Scanning Electron Microscope and the Transmission Electron Microscope.

Scanning Probe Microscope: This kind of microscope measures interaction between a physical probe and a sample to form a micrograph. Only surface data can be collected and analyzed from the sample. Types of Scanning Probe Microscopes include the Atomic Force Microscope, the Scanning Tunneling Microscope, the Electric Force Microscope, and the Magnetic Force Microscope.

NEUST March

NEUST Mission and Vission

MISSION

             By offering graduate, undergraduate and short-term courses within the areas of specialization and according to its capabilities, NEUST ensures to primarily provide advance instruction, professional training in arts, science and technology education and other related fields, undertake research and extension service, and provide progressive leadership in these areas.

VISION

NEUST is a recognized leader in the region and managed by committed and ethical public servants where:

• A culture of excellence, ethics and solidarity thrives and prospers in each academic and administrative unit,  and

• Each college, institute and campus is a center of development/ excellence in its respective programs of instruction, research and extension services  and production, transforming students, alumni and other clienteles into high  quality, competent and ethical leaders, professionals and/or middle level manpower in the fields of Science and Technology education, management, arts and Technology-based Education and Training.

Paintings

                                                       

Mona Lisa (also known as La Gioconda or La Joconde) is a sixteenth-century portrait painted in oil on a poplar panel in Florence, Italy by Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci during the Renaissance. The work is currently owned by the Government of France and is on display at the Louvre museum in Paris under the title Portrait of Lisa Gherardini, wife of Francesco del Giocondo. Arguably, it is the most famous and iconic painting in the world.

              The painting is a half-length portrait and depicts a woman whose facial expression is frequently described as enigmatic. Others believe that the slight smile is an indication that the subject is hiding a secret. The ambiguity of the subject's expression, the monumentality of the composition, and the subtle modeling of forms and atmospheric illusionism were novel qualities that have contributed to the continuing fascination and study of the work. In 1911, it was stolen and copied; the copies were sold as the genuine painting. It was recovered in 1913.

                    In the Christian Gospels, the Last Supper was the last meal Jesus shared with his Twelve Apostles and disciples before his death. The Last Supper has been the subject of many paintings, of which that by Leonardo da Vinci is perhaps best known.

                     According to what Paul the Apostle recounted in 1 Corinthians 11:23–26, in the course of the Last Supper, and with specific reference to eating bread and drinking from a cup, Jesus told his disciples, "Do this in remembrance of me". In the Synoptic Gospels, Jesus institutes a new covenant of his blood and body, the wine and bread. Many Christians describe this as the "Institution of the Eucharist" (see Maundy Thursday). Scholars have looked to the Last Supper as the source of early Christian Eucharist traditions.Others see the account of the Last Supper as derived from 1st-century eucharistic practice as described as early as the mid-50s of that century (the date of the writing of 1 Corinthians), 20-25 years after the death of Jesus. The Gospel of John recounts, instead of the institution of this new covenant with wine and bread, Jesus' washing of the disciples' feet, and also depicts Jesus as speaking at length in his farewell discourse about his divine role.

A typical Filipina country woman as portrayed by Amorsolo. This painting also demonstrates his characteristic backlighting technique.

Physics

Physics Branches
Here is a list of main branches of physics, along with a summary of what is studied in that particular branch. Every branch of physics is further divided into smaller sub-branches. As explained before, every one of these branches except mathematical physics, has an experimental and theoretical sub-division. The classification of these branches of physics is artificial and these branches overlap onto each other to create further specialized fields.

Classical Mechanics
This is the oldest branch of physics which analytically describes motion of all objects on the macroscopic scales. It describes everything from why large objects like balls bounce, why pendulum swings to why planets revolve around the Sun! It describes 'mechanics' of all kinds on the large scale and its classical, because it cannot explain motion at atomic level. Fluid mechanics is one specialized sub-branch of classical mechanics, which describes the physics of all types of fluids.

Mathematical Physics
This is the branch of physics, which gives theoretical physics its tools of analysis. Mathematics is the language of nature and therefore if one wants to understand nature, one must understand mathematics. Mathematics brings precision to physics. It is the branch which is an overlap of pure mathematics and physics. Mathematical physics techniques form the toolbox of a physicist. Just like a workman must use the right kind of tools to get his job done, so must a physicist use the right mathematical tools to solve a problem! The more and more deeply we explore nature, every new law discovered can only be expressed in a new form of mathematics.

Classical Electrodynamics
This field is the most broadly applied of all the branches of physics. Classical electrodynamics is based on Maxwell's laws of electromagnetism, which describes all kinds of electromagnetic phenomena from atomic to global scales. It is the theoretical basis of optics, telecommunication and many other sub-fields. Its domain extends over all of nature, as the 'Electromagnetic Force' is all pervading and we live in an electromagnetic world.

Quantum Mechanics
This branch describes a new kind of mechanics, which can explain phenomena at the sub-atomic level, which classical mechanics fails to describe. It provides the clearest picture of nature at the sub-atomic scales. Quantum physics, is based on the principle of uncertainty, and predicts all phenomena in terms of probabilities. It describes a weird sub-atomic world, which is totally different from the world at macroscopic scales. Studying quantum physics requires quite a bit of mathematical expertise and it is the theoretical basis of all branches of physics, that describe phenomena at atomic or sub-atomic scales. For more on this read, 'Basics of Quantum Mechanics for Dummies'.

Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics
Thermodynamics and statistical physics is one of the core branches of physics, which gives a theoretical mechanism to describe the motion of and phenomena in multi-particle systems. Even though a single particle motion can be analyzed by quantum mechanics, it cannot describe multi-particle systems analytically, as the variables of calculation there are too many. So, a statistical approach is needed that describes motion of matter in bulk. Thermodynamics is a predecessor of statistical mechanics. Statistical mechanics combined with quantum mechanics, forms quantum statistical mechanics.

Condensed Matter Physics
Condensed Matter Physics is a sub-branch of quantum physics and statistical mechanics, which describes all phenomena that occur in matter, which is in condensed form. This includes everything from liquids, solid and gases. The physics of semiconductor devices, which make today's age of information technology possible, is a result of research developments in condensed matter physics. It describes all phenomena in bulk matter like ferromagnetism, superfluidity and superconductivity.

Nuclear Physics
Nuclear physics describes all the phenomena that occur at the level of the atomic nucleus. It deals with and explains phenomena like radioactivity, nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. Developments in nuclear physics led to the production of nuclear weapons like the atom bomb, the Hydrogen bomb and made nuclear energy source available to mankind. For more on this, read 'List of Radioactive Elements'.

Quantum Field theory
This is the physics which describes the physics of particles, which are very small and very fast. It is also known as particle physics. It is based on the three theoretical foundations of quantum mechanics, special theory of relativity and the concept of fields. It is based on the unification of all these three foundations and it describes the physics of fundamental particles of matter. It is one of the most difficult branches of physics, which describe the ultimate building blocks of nature.

Non-Linear Dynamics
This is a sub-field of classical mechanics, which solves the problems on macroscopic scales, which cannot be solved by classical mechanics. It is an advanced branch of mathematics, which attempts to solve non-linear differential equations of motion, which are not amenable to a solution by conventional techniques. A greater part of it is also known as 'Chaos Theory', which delves in to the organized chaos that exists in the macroscopic world. It is the most happening branch of physics currently. For more on this read, 'An Introduction to Chaos Theory'.

Astronomy and Astrophysics
Astronomy is the observational study of the universe in all its manifestations and astrophysics (a confluence of all branches of physics), is the theoretical basis, which can explain all those phenomena. It is the most all encompassing of all the branches of physics, which has a singular goal of explaining every phenomenon that occurs in the universe.

General Theory of Relativity and Cosmology
The general theory of relativity is the correct theory, which describes gravitation at all scales. It interprets gravity not as a force, but as a consequence of the curvature of space-time. Space around massive objects actually gets warped and bent. Gravity is the result of this warping of space time. Special relativity unifies space and time in to 'Spacetime' and general relativity makes 'Spacetime' interact with matter. How much space warps, depends on the content of matter and energy in it. In simple words, general relativity is described by, 'Matter tells space how to bend, space tells matter how to move!' For more read 'Does the Fourth(4th) Dimension of Time Exist'.

Physics is the study of matter, energy and the interactions of the two.

Physics can be divided into two main branches: mechanics (the study of the behavior of forces and objects acting due to those forces); and, electricity and magnetism (which delves into the science of the atom).


The fundamental branches of physics:

classical mechanics
electromagnetism (including optics)
relativity
thermodynamics
quantum mechanics
astronomy
electromagnetism


Some of the more popular or modern branches of physics:

Astro and space physics (study of stars, planets, black holes, etc.)
geophysics (study of like earthquakes and plate tectonics)
nuclear physics
particle physics
medical physics
biophysics, and quantum physics, which is mostly theoretical

Classical Physics :

Mechanics
Acoustics
Thermics
Electromagnetics
Optics

Modern Physics:

Relativistic Mechanics
Quantum Mechanics
Quantum Acoustics
Quantum Thermodynamics
Quantum Electrodynamics
Quantum Optics

Applied Physics :

Cosmophysics
Astrophysics
Planetophysics
Geophysics
Molecular Physics
Atomic Physics
Nuclear Physics
Particle Physics
Solid-State Physics
Fluid Physics
Plasma Physics
Phononics
Thermal Physics
EM Instrumentation
Electronics
Photonics

Physicist

Famous Physicists

Classical Period

William Gilbert
1544-1603
English
hypothesized that the Earth is a giant magnet

Galileo Galilei
1564-1642
Italian
performed fundamental observations, experiments, and mathematical analyses in astronomy and physics; discovered mountains and craters on the moon, the phases of Venus, and the four largest satellites of Jupiter: Io, Europa, Callisto, and Ganymede

Willebrod Snell
1580-1626
Dutch
discovered law of refraction (Snell's law)

Blaise Pascal
1623-1662
French discovered that pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished to every part of the fluid and to the walls of its container (Pascal's principle)

Christiaan Huygens
1629-1695
Dutch
proposed a simple geometrical wave theory of light, now known as ``Huygen's principle''; pioneered use of the pendulum in clocks

Robert Hooke
1635-1703
English
discovered Hooke's law of elasticity

Sir Isaac Newton
1643-1727
English
developed theories of gravitation and mechanics, and invented differential calculus

Daniel Bernoulli
1700-1782
Swiss
developed the fundamental relationship of fluid flow now known as Bernoulli's principle

Benjamin Franklin
1706-1790
American
the first American physicist; characterized two kinds of electric charge, which he named ``positive'' and ``negative''

Leonard Euler
1707-1783
Swiss
made fundamental contributions to fluid dynamics, lunar orbit theory (tides), and mechanics; also contributed prolifically to all areas of classical mathematics

Henry Cavendish
1731-1810
British
discovered and studied hydrogen; first to measure Newton's gravitational constant; calculated mass and mean density of Earth

Charles Augustin de Coulomb
1736-1806
French
experiments on elasticity, electricity, and magnetism; established experimentally nature of the force between two charges

Joseph-Louis Lagrange
1736-1813
French
developed new methods of analytical mechanics

James Watt
1736-1819
Scottish
invented the modern condensing steam engine and a centrifugal governor

Count Alessandro Volta
1745-1827
Italian
pioneer in study of electricity; invented the first electric battery

Joseph Fourier
1768-1830
French
established the differential equation governing heat diffusion and solved it by devising an infinite series of sines and cosines capable of approximating a wide variety of functions

Thomas Young
1773-1829
British
studied light and color; known for his double-slit experiment that demonstrated the wave nature of light

Jean-Babtiste Biot
1774-1862
French
studied polarization of light; co-discovered that intensity of magnetic field set up by a current flowing through a wire varies inversely with the distance from the wire

André Marie Ampère
1775-1836
French
father of electrodynamics

Amadeo Avogadro
1776-1856
Italian
developed hypothesis that all gases at same volume, pressure, and temperature contain same number of atoms

Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss
1777-1855
German formulated separate electrostatic and electrodynamical laws, including ``Gauss' law''; contributed to development of number theory, differential geometry, potential theory, theory of terrestrial magnetism, and methods of calculating planetary orbits

Hans Christian Oersted
1777-1851
Danish
discovered that a current in a wire can produce magnetic effects

Sir David Brewster
1781-1868
English
deduced ``Brewster's law'' giving the angle of incidence that produces reflected light which is completely polarized; invented the kaleidoscope and the stereoscope, and improved the spectroscope

Augustin-Jean Fresnel
1788-1827
French
studied transverse nature of light waves

Georg Ohm
1789-1854
German
discovered that current flow is proportional to potential difference and inversely proportional to resistance (Ohm's law)

Michael Faraday
1791-1867
English
discovered electromagnetic induction and devised first electrical transformer

Felix Savart
1791-1841
French
co-discovered that intensity of magnetic field set up by a current flowing through a wire varies inversely with the distance from the wire

Sadi Carnot
1796-1832
French
founded the science of thermodynamics

Joseph Henry
1797-1878
American
performed extensive fundamental studies of electromagnetic phenomena; devised first practical electric motor

Christian Doppler
1803-1853
Austrian
experimented with sound waves; derived an expression for the apparent change in wavelength of a wave due to relative motion between the source and observer

Wilhelm E. Weber
1804-1891
German
developed sensitive magnetometers; worked in electrodynamics and the electrical structure of matter

Sir William Hamilton
1805-1865
Irish
developed the principle of least action and the Hamiltonian form of classical mechanics

James Prescott Joule
1818-1889
British
discovered mechanical equivalent of heat

Armand-Hippolyte-Louis Fizeau
1819-1896
French
made the first terrestrial measurement of the speed of light; invented one of the first interferometers; took the first pictures of the Sun on daguerreotypes; argued that the Doppler effect with respect to sound should also apply to any wave motion, particularly that of light

Jean-Bernard-Léon Foucault
1819-1868
French
accurately measured speed of light; invented the gyroscope; demonstrated the Earth's rotation

Sir George Gabriel Stokes
1819-1903
British
described the motion of viscous fluids by independently discovering the Navier-Stokes equations of fluid mechanics (or hydrodynamics); developed Stokes theorem by which certain surface integrals may be reduced to line integrals; discovered fluorescence

Hermann von Helmholtz
1821-1894
German
developed first law of thermodynamics, a statement of conservation of energy

Rudolf Clausius
1822-1888
German
developed second law of thermodynamics, a statement that the entropy of the Universe always increases

Lord Kelvin
(born William Thomson)
1824-1907
British
proposed absolute temperature scale, of essence to development of thermodynamics

Gustav Kirchhoff
1824-1887
German
developed three laws of spectral analysis and three rules of electric circuit analysis; also contributed to optics

Johann Balmer
1825-1898
Swiss
developed empirical formula to describe hydrogen spectrum

Sir Joseph Wilson Swan
1828-1914
British
developed a carbon-filament incandescent light; patented the carbon process for printing photographs in permanent pigment

James Clerk Maxwell
1831-1879
Scottish
propounded the theory of electromagnetism; developed the kinetic theory of gases

Josef Stefan
1835-1893
Austrian
studied blackbody radiation

Ernst Mach
1838-1916
Austrian
studied conditions that occur when an object moves through a fluid at high speed (the ``Mach number'' gives the ratio of the speed of the object to the speed of sound in the fluid); proposed ``Mach's principle,'' which states that the inertia of an object is due to the interaction between the object and the rest of the universe

Josiah Gibbs
1839-1903
American
developed chemical thermodynamics; introduced concepts of free energy and chemical potential

James Dewar
1842-1923
British
liquified nitrogen and invented the Dewar flask, which is critical for low-temperature work

Osborne Reynolds
1842-1912
British
contributed to the fields of hydraulics and hydrodynamics; developed mathematical framework for turbulence and introduced the ``Reynolds number,'' which provides a criterion for dynamic similarity and correct modeling in many fluid-flow experiments

Ludwig Boltzmann
1844-1906
Austrian
developed statistical mechanics and applied it to kinetic theory of gases

Roland Eötvös
1848-1919
Hungarian
demonstrated equivalence of gravitational and inertial mass

Oliver Heaviside
1850-1925
English
contributed to the development of electromagnetism; introduced operational calculus and invented the modern notation for vector calculus; predicted existence of the Heaviside layer (a layer of the Earth's ionosphere)

George Francis FitzGerald
1851-1901
Irish
hypothesized foreshortening of moving bodies (Lorentz-FitzGerald contraction) to explain the result of the Michelson-Morley experiment

John Henry Poynting
1852-1914
British
demonstrated that the energy flow of electromagnetic waves could be calculated by an equation (now called Poynting's vector)

Henri Poincaré 1854-1912
French
founded qualitative dynamics (the mathematical theory of dynamical systems); created topology; contributed to solution of the three-body problem; first described many properties of deterministic chaos; contributed to the development of special relativity

Janne Rydberg
1854-1919
Swedish
analyzed the spectra of many elements; discovered many line series were described by a formula that depended on a universal constant (the Rydberg constant)

Edwin H. Hall
1855-1938
American
discovered the ``Hall effect,'' which occurs when charge carriers moving through a material are deflected because of an applied magnetic field - the deflection results in a potential difference across the side of the material that is transverse to both the magnetic field and the current direction

Heinrich Hertz
1857-1894
German
worked on electromagnetic phenomena; discovered radio waves and the photoelectric effect

Nikola Tesla
1857-1943
Serbian-born American
created alternating current

Overview of the Scientific Method

The scientific method is a process for experimentation that is used to explore observations and answer questions. Scientists use the scientific method to search for cause and effect relationships in nature. In other words, they design an experiment so that changes to one item cause something else to vary in a predictable way.

Ask a Question: The scientific method starts when you ask a question about something that you observe: How, What, When, Who, Which, Why, or Where?
And, in order for the scientific method to answer the question it must be about something that you can measure, preferably with a number.
Do Background Research: Rather than starting from scratch in putting together a plan for answering your question, you want to be a savvy scientist using library and Internet research to help you find the best way to do things and insure that you don't repeat mistakes from the past.

Construct a Hypothesis: A hypothesis is an educated guess about how things work:
"If _____[I do this] _____, then _____[this]_____ will happen."
You must state your hypothesis in a way that you can easily measure, and of course, your hypothesis should be constructed in a way to help you answer your original question.

Test Your Hypothesis by Doing an Experiment: Your experiment tests whether your hypothesis is true or false. It is important for your experiment to be a fair test. You conduct a fair test by making sure that you change only one factor at a time while keeping all other conditions the same.
You should also repeat your experiments several times to make sure that the first results weren't just an accident.

Analyze Your Data and Draw a Conclusion: Once your experiment is complete, you collect your measurements and analyze them to see if your hypothesis is true or false.

Scientists often find that their hypothesis was false, and in such cases they will construct a new hypothesis starting the entire process of the scientific method over again. Even if they find that their hypothesis was true, they may want to test it again in a new way.

Communicate Your Results: To complete your science fair project you will communicate your results to others in a final report and/or a display board. Professional scientists do almost exactly the same thing by publishing their final report in a scientific journal or by presenting their results on a poster at a scientific meeting.



The history of biology traces the study of the living world from ancient to modern times. Although the concept of biology as a single coherent field arose in the 19th century, the biological sciences emerged from traditions of medicine and natural history reaching back to ancient Egyptian medicine and the works of Aristotle and Galen in the ancient Greco-Roman world. This ancient work was further developed in the Middle Ages by Muslim physicians and scholars such as Avicenna. During the European Renaissance and early modern period, biological thought was revolutionized in Europe by a renewed interest in empiricism and the discovery of many novel organisms. Prominent in this movement were Vesalius and Harvey, who used experimentation and careful observation in physiology, and naturalists such as Linnaeus and Buffon who began to classify the diversity of life and the fossil record, as well as the development and behavior of organisms. Microscopy revealed the previously unknown world of microorganisms, laying the groundwork for cell theory. The growing importance of natural theology, partly a response to the rise of mechanical philosophy, encouraged the growth of natural history (although it entrenched the argument from design).
Over the 18th and 19th centuries, biological sciences such as botany and zoology became increasingly professional scientific disciplines. Lavoisier and other physical scientists began to connect the animate and inanimate worlds through physics and chemistry. Explorer-naturalists such as Alexander von Humboldt investigated the interaction between organisms and their environment, and the ways this relationship depends on geography—laying the foundations for biogeography, ecology and ethology. Naturalists began to reject essentialism and consider the importance of extinction and the mutability of species. Cell theory provided a new perspective on the fundamental basis of life. These developments, as well as the results from embryology and paleontology, were synthesized in Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. The end of the 19th century saw the fall of spontaneous generation and the rise of the germ theory of disease, though the mechanism of inheritance remained a mystery.
In the early 20th century, the rediscovery of Mendel's work led to the rapid development of genetics by Thomas Hunt Morgan and his students, and by the 1930s the combination of population genetics and natural selection in the "neo-Darwinian synthesis". New disciplines developed rapidly, especially after Watson and Crick proposed the structure of DNA. Following the establishment of the Central Dogma and the cracking of the genetic code, biology was largely split between organismal biology—the fields that deal with whole organisms and groups of organisms—and the fields related to cellular and molecular biology. By the late 20th century, new fields like genomics and proteomics were reversing this trend, with organismal biologists using molecular techniques, and molecular and cell biologists investigating the interplay between genes and the environment, as well as the genetics of natural populations of organisms.

Definition
noun, plural: characteristics
(1) A distinguishing quality, trait or feature of an individual, thing, disorder, etc.
(2) A distinctive mark, feature, attribute, or property of an individual or thing.

adjective
Being a feature or trait that helps identify an individual, thing, etc.

Supplement
For instance, a living thing is considered alive when it shows the following general characteristics:
• It is made up of cell(s).
• It is capable of growth and development.
• It obtains energy and utilizes it.
• It can reproduce.
• It responds to its environment.
• It is capable of adapting to its environment.

Word origin: Greek charaktēristikós (to designate, characterize)
Related forms: characteristically (adverb)

Sociobiology is a synthesis of scientific disciplines which attempts to explain social behavior in animal species by considering the Darwinian advantages specific behaviors may have.

Auguste Comte was a French philosopher, a founder of the discipline of sociology and of the doctrine of positivism. He may be regarded as the first philosopher of science in the modern sense of the term

Karl Heinrich Marx was a German[2] philosopher, political economist, historian, political theorist, sociologist, communist, and revolutionary, whose ideas played a significant role in the development of modern communism.

David Émile Durkheim was a French sociologist. He formally established the academic discipline and, with Karl Marx and Max Weber, is commonly cited as the principal architect of modern social science.[1]

Ferdinand Tönnies (July 26, 1855, near Oldenswort (Eiderstedt, North Frisia) - April 9, 1936, Kiel, Germany) was a German sociologist. He was a major contributor to sociological theory and field studies, as well as bringing Thomas Hobbes back on the agenda, by publishing his manuscripts. He is best known for his distinction between two types of social groups — Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft. He was, however, a prolific writer and also co-founder of the German Society for Sociology (being its president 1909-1933, when he was ousted by the Nazis). In English his name is often spelt without the umlaut as Ferdinand Toennies, as this spelling can also be accepted in German.

Robert King Merton was a distinguished American sociologist. He theorized "the unintended consequence," the "reference group," and "role strain" but is perhaps best known and least acknowledged for having created the concept of the "self-fulfilling prophecy." A central element of modern sociological, political and economic theory, the "self-fulfilling prophecy" is a process whereby a belief or an expectation, correct or incorrect, affects the outcome of a situation or the way a person or a group will behave.[1]

Maximilian Carl Emil "Max" Weber was a German sociologist and political economist, who profoundly influenced social theory, social research, and the remit of sociology itself.[1] Weber's major works dealt with the rationalization and so-called "disenchantment" which he associated with the rise of capitalism and modernity.

Georg Simmel (March 1, 1858 – September 28, 1918) was one of the first generation of German sociologists. His neo-Kantian approach laid the foundations for sociological antipositivism, asking 'What is society?' in a direct allusion to Kant's question 'What is nature?'[1], presenting pioneering analyses of social individuality and fragmentation.

Talcott Parsons Parsons developed a general theory for the study of society called action theory, based on the methodological principle of voluntarism and the epistemological principle of analytical realism.

Anthony Giddens, Baron Giddens is a British sociologist who is renowned for his theory of structuration and his holistic view of modern societies. He is considered to be one of the most prominent modern contributors in the field of sociology, the author of at least 34 books, published in at least 29 languages, issuing on average more than one book every year. In 2007, Giddens was listed as the fifth most-referenced author of books in the humanities.

Paul Felix Lazarsfeld was one of the major figures in 20th-century American sociology. The founder of Columbia University's Bureau for Applied Social Research, he exerted a tremendous influence over the techniques and the organization of social research. "It is not so much that he was an American sociologist," one colleague said of him after his death, "as it was that he determined what American sociology would be."

Sir Francis Galton FRS cousin of Sir Douglas Galton, half-cousin of Charles Darwin, was an English Victorian polymath, anthropologist, eugenicist, tropical explorer, geographer, inventor, meteorologist, proto-geneticist, psychometrician, and statistician.

Max Horkheimer was a German philosopher-sociologist, famous for his work in critical theory as a member of the 'Frankfurt School' of social research. His most important works include The Eclipse of Reason (1947) and, in collaboration with Theodor Adorno, The Dialectic of Enlightenment (1947). Through the Frankfurt School, Horkheimer planned, supported and made other significant works possible.

Jürgen Habermas is a German sociologist and philosopher in the tradition of critical theory and pragmatism. He is perhaps best known for his work on the concept of the public sphere, the topic of his first book entitled The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere.

Harrison Colyar White White is an influential scholar in the domain of social networks.[1] He is credited with the development of a number of mathematical models of social structure including vacancy chains and blockmodels. He has been a leader of a revolution in sociology that is still in process, using models of social structure that are based on patterns of relations instead of the attributes and attitudes of individuals.

The humanities are academic disciplines which study the human condition, using methods that are primarily analytic, critical, or speculative, as distinguished from the mainly empirical approaches of the natural and social sciences.

Criminology is the scientific study of the nature, extent, causes, and control of criminal behavior in both the individual and in society.

A nationalism study is an interdisciplinary academic field devoted to the study of nationalism and related issues. While nationalism has been the subject of scholarly discussion since at least the late eighteenth century, it is only since the early 1990s that it has received enough attention for a distinct field to emerge.

Sociobiology is a synthesis of scientific disciplines which attempts to explain social behavior in animal species by considering the Darwinian advantages specific behaviors may have.

Geography is the study of the Earth and its lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena.