Use of Motivation

THE USE OF MOTIVATION IN TEACHING

 AND IN LEARNING

Aims of the Chapter:

1.     To give the students adequate knowledge of the nature and uses of motivation in education.

2.     To develop among the students an understanding of the different types of motives and incentives and their value in teaching and in learning.

The Meaning of Motivation

                He key to directing and guiding learning is the understanding of the needs, motives, and interests of the learning consequently much of the teacher’s work centers around problems of motivation. Almost invariably the teacher who fails in her teaching is the one who is unable to take proper account of motivation factors. He understanding and proper use of motivational techniques bring interest, good morale, effective learning, and a sense of real achievement to the classroom. Lack of understanding and improper attempts to direct and guide learning often result in increased tension, disciplinary problems, inefficient learning, and a sense that the school activities are little more than busy work. The understanding and proper use of motivational technique bring interest, effective teaching and productive learning.

                 Motivation is not a bag of tricks which the teacher uses to produce learning. Rather it is a process which belongs to the learner. It is similar to vision in that it involves extern al stimulation, appropriate mechanism of response, and an internal stimulation, appropriate mechanism of response, and an internal force which energizes the response. The basic substratum of motivation may be found in the need of the child. The first characteristic of motives is that they have an energizing function. They stir up behavior. Besides releasing energy, motives have a character of directionality. Energy produced by needs seeks a discharge in relevant incentives, or goal objects which satisfy needs. In brief, motivation maybe described as a process in which energies produced by needs are expected in the direction of goals.

                Motivation of school  learning depends upon such factors as the learner’s purpose or intent to learn, his self-concept and self confidence, his level of aspiration, and his knowledge and appraisal of how well he is doing in relation to his goal. It is the job of the teacher to create an atmosphere which provides desirable outlets for needs in which interests will as a consequence flourish.

               Motivation has many connotations as used in education. The term motivation is often used to denote springs of actions, they be native or acquired. It means causing or inducing movements. Motivations are simply the moving power that elicits vigorous effort to learn or to do things. Motivation is that which impels one to move, whether such impulsion is conscious or unconscious. It is also used to mean stimulation of a desire on the part of the learner to learn. In other words, motivation provides the energy or power for learning to occur, Motivation may also denote is condition, stemming from basic biological drives, which energizes, selects and directs learning.

            Motivation determines the presence and vigor of activity. It refers not only to the presence and vigor of activity, but also the amount of self which is utilized. Although motivation provides the energy that makes it possible for learning to occur, more is needed for the realization of learning. Learning efficiency may be greatly impaired if there is neither explicit nor self-induced intention to learn. Self-direction is essential to promote a complete development of self. Teachers guide and direct their development best when they are sensitive to maturing the        self–direction in the pupils.

              Although motivation provides energy or power that makes it possible for learning to occur, more s needed for the realization of learning to occur, more is needs for the realization of learning. Motivation is the heart of the learning process. A strong inner urge will mean stronger efforts. Adequate motivation not only sets in motion the activity which results in learning, but also sustains and directs it. The learner must be motivated so that his interest will be directed toward a definite objective which will take him far beyond the experiences which are utilized as motivation toward further learning. It can be concluded that the fundamental aim of motivation is to stimulate and facilitate learning activity.          

             Likewise, motivation is the psychological factor in learning. His response of the organism is dependent on the sensitivity of the sensory receptors (visual, auditory, etc.), the condition of the effectors, and the general tone of the organism. Defects of vision, hearing, and the oral functioning of the glands affect learning directly. His psychological factor in all its varied forms is based ultimately on a sense of well-being and satisfaction. This satisfaction results from anticipation of successful accomplishment of a task that is attractive in itself, or negatively, the avoidance of painful or undesirable consequences. Such experiences tend to impress themselves, and as to be remembered and learned.

Types of Motivation

             There are many types of motivation as there is author’s o the subject. The two types of motivation generally known in education are the following:

              1. Intrinsic Motivation – This type of motivation is an internal stimulus to learning. Intrinsic motivation is based on motives that every individual strives to satisfy. Motives are intrinsic, or within the person. They have their roots in needs and drives. Motives refer to drives that exercise all behavior. Motive is a thought, feeling, or condition that causes one to act. Motives are highly individualized. They stir up behavior. Besides releasing energy, motives have a character of directionality. It is an organic state that prompts one to action. A worthy motive is an inducer, an inciter, or an impeller, and is always based on interest. An interest does necessary result in a motive, but it is always the staring point. In general, a motive is a tendency which I aroused by a certain stimulus. Motive releases energy and arouses activity. To motivate activity is to arouse, to direct, and to sustain it. Motives activity is to arouse, to direct, and to sustain it. Motives are potent factors in learning for they encourage the learner in his learning activities for they encourage the learner in his learning activities. Motives are dynamic forces that affect the behavior, the thoughts, and motions of the pupils. Motives as directors of behavior are fundamentally important in the teaching and learning process. Good learning is impossible without the aroused and directed will of the learner. Thus, intrinsic motivation where needs are directly satisfied by the learning itself, probably produces the most efficient, pervasive, and permanent learning.

               The desire for knowledge, the desire to explore, and the desire to construct are the most common forms of intrinsic motivation. Interest of the learner in a certain subject-matter is an internal desire to do better work. Education should start at the point of contact, and within the range of interest and capacity of the pupils (whole hearted purposeful activity). In this type of motivation the pupils work, not for medals and glory, but for personal satisfaction that comes with accomplishment. The learner is spurred by an inner drive toward the achievement of ends within his own experiences and comprehension. When motive is external to the activity, motivation is bad. Good motivation obtains when the motive for dig the act lies within the act.

2.     Extrinsic Motivation – This type of motivation  is an  external stimulus to

Learning activity. Praise and blame, rivalry, rewards and punishments are some of the more common types of extrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation is based on incentives. Incentives are artificial devices introduced into the methods of teaching for the purpose of stimulating and directing the activity of the learner. Incentive is the means employed to evoke attitude conducive to learning. The stimulus that gives rise to a motive is called incentives. Incentives are essentially the environmental arrangements of stimuli designed to cause pupils to react more vigorously than they would without these additional stimuli. Incentives vary according to the sex, brightness and dullness, and age of the learner. Devices used to stimulate first-graders will not appeal to high school students. Similarly, bright and dull pupils, for example, differ in their response to praise and blame.

             In extrinsic motivation the pupil is encouraged to do good school work by such dives as markers, honors, prizes, scholarships, and privileges. The present trend toward the elimination of marks in curricular activities, and awards in extra – curricular activities, show that educators are fast losing confidence in their effectiveness as incentives.

          The types of motivation are presented here as an attempt to clarify and crystallize the meaning and nature of motivation and its function in the teaching process of presenting motives and incentives in order to vitalize learning on the part of the pupils and teaching on the part of the teachers. It plays a significant part in the accomplishment of the proper integrative and interactive processes between the learner and his environment.

          Not all of the different types of motivation given are acceptable to progressive education. The followers of the progressive school reject competition, rewards, praise and blame, and knowledge of results as motives of learning. They emphasize cooperation and sharing of interest within and among the various groups which constitute the larger society of mankind. The progressive schools have subordinated competition and acquisitive motives to social motives. Likewise, the proponents of the new education claim that individualistic incentives or external motives are undesirable forms of motivation. It can be included however, that extrinsic motivation, in which secondary or intermediary incentives are used to carry the cleaning, is frequently necessary, although not as effective as the primary type.

          Progressive or new education stresses cooperation and sharing rather than competition or competitive and acquisitive learning. The fundamental concept of progressive education is that education should take place in and through the life situation, that is, through occupational activities true to life and carried out in that spirit of cooperation and responsibility necessary for human beings banded together in a community. Traditional education emphasized competitive and acquisitive motive, in consonance with social order which revered individualism and regarded accumulation of wealth as a criterion of successful living. In other words, success in life is measured in terms of material wealth. Progressive education stresses cooperation and sharing. In consonance with its ideal of democracy, a sharing of interest within and among the various groups which constitute the larger society of mankind. Exaggerated competition is no longer to be encouraged in the classroom.

          Characteristically, Philippine schools have fostered competition without teaching children how to complete. By pacing a high premium upon individual achievement the school generally assist in the development of a keen sense of rivalry among pupils. There can be little doubt that competition operates as on of the outstanding incentives in school learning. Competition gets its strength from the ego and social needs of the individual who comes to value his place in a particular group or groups and who strives to maintain that place or better it. As with other important incentives, its roots grow in the soil of basic needs but its form and consequences are culturally determined.

          It should be clear that effect of competition upon the performance either of individual or of group depends upon factors such as the nature of the task, the structure of the groups involved and the previous experiences and personalities of the individuals who comprise competing groups. Generalization about the effects of competition can be made only when these various factors are taken into account. It is probable that when a group has a little structure or common interests and goals, competition becomes an individual matter. On the other hand, the teacher should consider some of the excellent results and highly motivated conditions obtaining in cases when the work of the groups has been directed toward meaningful and challenging  materials.

          Any school motives or incentives must be considered in terms of the total effect. Even though fair competition may be effective in some circumstances as an incentive in motivating academic achievement, there is still the question as to its effect upon other kinds of learning than the subject –matter performance.

          Competition may be desirable school incentive when: (1) each pupil has training how to complete, (2) expect rewards for their efforts, (3) there is sufficient and varied competitive activities to allow all to experience, (4) groups are somewhat evenly matched complete as groups, (5) losing is considered not as failure as a temporary setback.

Importance of Motivation to learning

            The purpose and importance of motivation to learning should be clearly understood by the teacher. The fundamental aim of motivation is to stimulate and to facilitate learning activity. Learning is an active process that needs to be motivated and guided toward desirable ends. Learning is self-initiated, but it must be aided by motives or incentives so that the learner will persist in the learning activity. A definite motive or incentive is valuable in all work, as motives and incentives make for readiness. The greater the readiness, the greater attention will be given to the work on hand and the sooner will the desired result be achieved. It is important to attempt to get the learner into a state of readiness for it increases the alertness, vigor, and wholeheartedness of learning. In trying to achieve some end, the more acute the readiness, the more satisfying the reaction. The activities which are futile become annoying. One sure means of Putting the law of effect into operation is to assist the learner to achieve ends and purposes which he is zealous to attain.

          The real problem in motivating schoolwork is to discover values strong enough to stimulate the pupils to effective efforts. The value that appeals strongly top one individual may have little or no appeal to another individual. Moreover, the value that appeal strongly to one individual at one time may not appeal as strongly at another time. The teacher  must be continually on the alert to perceive these differences and fluctuations. Since all learners do not react similarly, the motivation of learning must be varied for different individuals.

         An understanding of the nature of motivation is important, because motivation determines, not only the intensity of the effort to learn, but also the extent to which this effort is made an activity of the total personality. Motivation of learning activities help the pupil to concentrate on what he is doing, and thereby to gain satisfaction. Continuous motivation is needed to help learners concentrate on the lesson to be learned. The experiments made in its simplest form is seen in the experiments made in the way animals and human beings learn. In human learning, the motives that are applied most often are the impulse to mastery and desire for social approval. As shown by experiments, the impulse to mastery I the most effective motive for learning. The mastery motive can be utilized in directing the learning. Process by the use of the teacher’s marks, scores in objective tests, and the graphic records of progress.

          The importance  of motivation to learning is seen in the experiments in human learning. From experiments with a couple of high school students, Turney came to the conclusion “that the two major factors in school achievement are  intelligence and motivation, and that the latter is more important.” Book likewise asserts “ that motivation is the control factor  in every learning process. In the same manner, McMurry once said, “I believe that motivation is the most important principle in education Thorndike makes the same point in explaining that thought and action occur largely in the service of wants , interest, and attitudes and are stimulated and guided  by them.”

            The importance of motivation in life is well expressed by DR. Jose Rizal when he said: “Man works for an objects. Remove that objects, and you reduce him to inaction. The most active man in the world will fold his arms on the instant he understands that it is madness to be stir himself, that his work will be the cause of his trouble, that for him it will be the cause of vexation at home.”

Motives Important in Teaching and Learning  

              Motives are important aspects of motivation. They release energy and arouse activity. It is not enough just to activate an organism. The energy released is ineffective unless action is directed toward some objects that is capable of satisfying the drive. Improvement in learning will take place when  activities are converged upon well-defined and attainable goals. Learning cannot  be successful without persistent, selective, and purposeful effort. This principle has far-reaching implications for educational procedure. The needs for adequate motives for doing school work is clearly as great as the need for adequate motives for doing any other types of work.

             The different types of motives useful in teaching and in learning are the physiological, psychological, and habit motives. Physiological motives insure the preservation of life such as sex, hunger, thirst, avoidance of pain, and the desire to maintain homeostatic balance. These are the  motives that insure a strong urge to live, the desire to preserve one’s self, or to keep on living . Psychological motives refer to the desire to be noticed, admired, and honored or emulated. They are sometimes called the ego-motives. Habit motives refer to the well established habits which furnish their own source of motivation. In other word, habits are self-initiated, or  habits make for readiness.

           Some of the motives useful in motives useful in motivation are the following:

1.           Interest – One of the appeals that have been employed in effective motivation is the appeal to interest. The term interest as used here means the attention that a piece of subject matter draws from the learner. In addition to its being a feeling of worth, interest is dynamic. It is a motivating the force that incites us to attend to a person, a thing or an activity. It is not an end in itself but rather a most important means to that ultimate end of growth and development. By creating a proper mental set, interest guarantees attention and paves the way for activity leading to further activity. Interest and drives are concomitants of acquired ability.

           Interest to be effective must be natural and must exist because of the                            character of the individual’s mental make-up and the nature of the object presented. The so-called acquired interest, or created interest as it is sometimes called is in reality another form of motivation. The fundamental thing in motivation is the recognition on the part of the learner of the connection that the mastery of the subject has with something he desires to secure. One’s interest is of highly motivating import. Interest is stimulated and increases in its intensity. The teacher should utilize the pupil’s interest as a drive to more excellent work. The children’s interest, weather native or acquired must be utilized in the classroom.

2.           Personal Development – Another appeal that maybe made strong with many pupils is an appeal of the value of subject-matter as a means of bringing about definite personal development. The pupils are made to feel the need of intellectual growth and the desire to attain such growth. The pupil may value the subject as a mark of personal attainment. For example the pupil may study Spanish just to feel intellectual superior to those who have never studied the subject. The desire to be educated is worthy of being stimulated and employed as a means of motivating school work. The motive of personal growth stimulates pupils to great efforts that they may grow in resources. The teacher should endeavor to create conditions which will imbue them with the desire to grow. The school should endeavor to have pupils learn only those things and processes which are of immediate use and value in life situations.

3.           Instinctive Urges – Many psychologists believe that a human being inherits a large number of instinctive urges – that is unlearned mode of response and that every instinct is the equivalent of a fundamental and insistent urge or impulse. They believe every instinctive urge result in state of readiness and drives to action. It cannot be denied that some instincts or innate tendencies can be utilized as motives or drives for school work. Some instincts are essentially good and their satisfaction may be availed of as a stimulus to learning. The undesirable instinct maybe thwarted to neglect, substitution and repression.

Instinctive urges that are useful in promoting learning are gregariousness, competition, desire for social approval, manipulation and collection. Several experiments have revealed that children work better and faster and improve more rapidly when working together under the spur of  competition has been found effective because it increase achievement. Competition is effective in stimulating achievement. Indeed the presence of a co working group has the effect of increasing the efficiency and speed of the individual but the quality of the thought processes is usually superior when the performer is working alone. When the quality is the end in view the presence of a co-working group is probably always beneficial but when judgment and reasoning are involve or when the materials studied are different in nature working alone appears to be much superior. It can be said therefore that some pupils are stimulated by see presence of their fellows and do better work in groups other can accomplish more when working alone. Then again difference exist according to the nature of the some kinds of work being done best when alone others being done in groups.

              Social facilitation has been found experimentally to be an important factor for the motivation of achievement. The display of result gives definiteness to the urge to succeed to overcome assistance. The urge to surpass others in all its manifold forms is one of the most interesting and important human urges. Competition between groups if conducted properly gives training in cooperation. The school now being conducted in such a way that opportunity is given for the developing. Rivalry is motivation with the goal of superiority in achievement. Psychologically rivalry has been found effective because it increase achievement. However in teaching and learning situations too much emphasis upon competition may develop undesirable habits of behavior.

           The desire for social approval is a strong drive to learning. A special king of reward for achievement is the approval given pupils by classmate, teachers, and parents. As an incentive it includes praise complementary remarks acceptance by a group, publicity and the like. It might be conceive on broad sense as including those cases of reward for achievement in which favorable attention is gained.

4.           Emotions - Motives of type predominantly emotional in character are found in the studies which use praise and reproof and also to be selective in its applicant. Pupils also differ individually in their responsiveness to both commendation and disapproval.

        Teachers have always employed sarcasm commendation and censure a means of stimulating the pupils. They likewise employed censure and sarcasm a the chief means of influencing pupils to take their work seriously. From a review of the studies dealing with emotional motives certain principles are established. Praise is better than proof as a motive for diligent work. It is better regardless of age, sex, grade or degree of intellectual maturity. It has been observed that both praise and reproof maybe effectively employed as motivating influence but praise is better for you to standpoint of both immediate and remote return. Some pupils respond to censure than to praise and there are some teachers who because of certain personality traits can neither commend nor reprove pupils in an effective manner.

        In general, older children and children who are dull respond to praise, and reproof has an unfavorable effect on them. Reproof, on the other hand, may have a desirable effect on some of the brighter pupils, although on the whole. Praise is better . Poor pupils need praise and encouragement , but the bright pupils are so accustomed to smooth sailing that occasional reproof may spur them to do better work. With younger and less mature pupils , praise is likely to be more effective than reproof and can be employed to great advantage.

5.           Knowledge of Results and Success – A powerful idea of the results to be  achieved is very important in fixing facts and forming habits. In many teaching situation, the pupils hardly know  how they stand. They are not certain whether they  making progress, or whether their work highly satisfactory. Hence, a learner should be praised of his progress or growth. The effect of “knowledge of result” was first investigated by Judd in 1905. Book Norvel  (1922) found in control experiments that every man and woman fell below his score when knowledge of results was added to the learning situation, every subject of experiment surpassed the record he had made when he had no knowledge of the results of his effort. The studies made by Thorndike and others report consistent evidence of the motivation effect of knowledge of results upon various kinds of both mental and motor behavior.

       Pupils. in general, want a knowledge of results. The use of graphs and records showing their achievements in different subjects like reading , arithmetic and other activities will meet this need. They can observe, not only their  own progress, but also those of their classmates. Hence, they will be motivated to beat and to improved their own records as well as those of their class mates. The desire for social approval will drive them to work harder in order to improve their records. An Objectives knowledge of results is a highly desirable motive to use in teaching .

       The types of motives mentioned are not all acceptable to progressive education, Traditional education has made more use of the competitive and acquisitive motives ; on the other hand, progressive education has stressed cooperation and sharing, in consonance with the democratic way of life. It is the believe of the writer, using the electic  approach , that in teaching and learning both individualistic and social motives are desirable in forms of motivation. If the understanding of the Motives as observed in the process of teaching in natural and functional, based upon the native equipment of the learner and upon his daily activities, the accomplishment of purpose   of education becomes more certain as the process rises to the realistic and psychological level. Motives are the chief sources of spontaneous attention and joyful effort. These are also the bases of potential energy of the disposal of the teacher and the learner. It is generally accepted in the field of education that effective learning can be mentioned by a teacher who possess a dynamic personality and who reflects in his own attitude the influences of a broad and wholesome experience. Teaching and learning, to be effective and productive, must have motive.

       The desire for success id derived from ego and social needs. The child craves not only to feel a sense of achievement himself, but also wants his accomplishment to be admired by other. Success is always perceived in relation to the individual’s concept of himself, and in terms of the meaning of various incentives as they spell success or failure in the eyes of others. Thus a child who sees himself as a top ranking scholar may set as his goal the attainment of the highest grade in the class. Anything less than in his level of achievement is not perceived as success.

Uses of Incentives in Teaching and Learning

             The term incentive is used in education to describe both the incentive device and the attitude produced by it. From the point of view of the function of the school, incentives are artificial devices introduced into  methods of teaching for the purpose of stimulating and directing the activity of the learner. Incentives are the  means employed to evoke attitudes conducive to learning. The stimulus that gives rise to a motive is called incentive. While motive arte internal urges to reaction, incentives are external. They are essentially the environmental arrangements of stimuli designed to cause pupils top read more vigorously than they would without these additional stimuli.

          Incentives  vary according to the sex,  brightness and dullness, and age of the learner. Devices used to stimulate first graders will  not appeal to high school students, Similarly, bright and dull pupils  for example, differ in their response to praise and blame.

          The dividing line between motives and incentives is not always as definite and clear as we might desire. The purpose of motives and incentives is not to increase the effort devoted to motives and incentives but to high ten the interest in the task at hand. Much of the work of the teacher is to arrange situations, largely external stimuli, to stimulate the better incentives into drives to the work desired and to make the work satisfying. Proper uses of incentives call for adjustment to the mental and physical growth of the pupils as well as to the goals of instruction to which attention is desired to be directed. The highest type of incentive that will produce the desired reactions should be selected.

      The types of incentives which maybe of the use to facilitate learning in the classroom are.

1.           School marks – School marks do stimulate school work to a greater degree. Test scores and school marks used as a basis for grading offer a powerful stimulus to educative activity. Recognition of the pupil’s work in the form of grades has its favorable effect upon the learner. Experimental psychology has demonstrated that achievement. There is danger, however, that school marks or grades grain more attention than the intrinsic values of learning.

2.           Exhibiting good works – In the lower grades, the teacher’s practice of exhibiting the best work produces good results. When a pupil knows that the best  work is to be exhibited, the desire to do better work is stimulated or created. According  to  Luba, children can be motivated to do better work when incentives such as prizes are offered than when there is no incentives. His findings also show that dull children respond to extrinsic rewards more often than to bright, This attitudes is closely related to the desire for social approval. The feeling is made all the more pleasant when the completion of the activity receives group approval group approval and recognition.

3.           Game or play – In the lower primary grades, games or play maybe introduced to provide incentive for better work in subject such as arithmetic, reading, language, phonics, and spelling. The desire to play, when properly stimulated and directed, will facilitate learning and a great factor in the physical and mental development of the child. It develops personal discipline which is essential in a democracy.

4.           Examination – Education seem to agree that pupils tend to accomplish more when confronted with the realization that a  day of reckoning is surely at hand. The motivating value of an examination varies with the esteem in which it is held by the pupils. To have a motivating value, the examination  must come at frequent intervals; it would then be possible for the pupils to keep cumulative graph or records of their achievements. Such records constitute one of the most effective means of motivation is to motivate or to provide incentives for careful review and the gaining of new vistas.

5.           Honor Roll – This type of incentives is more often used in secondary schools and colleges. With students in the higher grades, recognition by means  of the honor roll serves to give incentives for such of their work. In the elementary grades, teachers sometimes  offer stars to pupils who have done perfect work, as a recognition of their achievements  or accomplishments. This type of incentive drill, however, appeals only to bright pupils. The below –average and pupils will not be stimulated at all.

6.           Emulation – Emulation as a school incentives was widely employed in the past. It should always be employed. The principle governing  emulation should be to excel without hurting or degrading others. Emulation is exemplified in cases where the pupils are urged by  the  teacher to do their  test in  oral or written exercises, and the pupils select the best work and commend it; where rapid and neat work in number is called for, and the successful pupil is praised. Effort, as well as success, is a powerful factor in child-training and  in  effective child-living.

7.           Material rewards – There are various types of rewards, and we are particularly concerned here with the rewards teachers give and  their effect upon school behavior , The use of material rewards in school  is not common for obvious reasons, but there is some evidence as to how such rewards effect the learning of the children. The important drawbacks in the use materials rewards in school  learning seem to be;

1)     In order to keep performance at a high level it seems necessary to increase rewards periodically,

2)     The attainment of material reward becomes the primary goal, and school  learning only an incidental means to an end – a means which quickly cast aside when the reward is attained;

3)     Other kinds of incentives arte just as effective or more effective and do not lead to the relegation of learning to a secondary position.

The use of marks or grades, the  giving of honor  through assemblies, honor societies, and scholarship; and the awarding of prizes in the form of ribbons, cups or trophies are all always in which the educators attempt to foster desirable behavior and promote a maximum of effort toward school goals.

8.           Punishment -  Punishment and the fear of punishment are still used as form of extrinsic motivation in the school room the last fifty years. There is a little question that fear, anxiety and avoidance of pain are powerful  motivation forces. Punishment has been assumed, at one or another to accomplish these ends :

1)     Teach the child respect for authority

2)     Block undesirable responses

3)     Force the child to do something he was not ready to do or did not want to do

4)     Set an example for potential offender

5)     Make the student pay attention to class work

6)     Motivate students to learn assigned material.

9.           Vocational Goal – Often high school and college students are impelled to learn by  the incentives of vocational aims or life interests. Inspite of  importance of vocational aims and objectives there is considerable evidence that parents, schools, and society  in general, have in large measure failed in helping young people develop these desirable incentives. Studies have shown that mature goals and definite vocational choice are related to academic achievement. It is an accepted fact that motivational process is composed of both energy and direction. The pupil who has clear goals – a definite direction for the release of energy – is obviously more apt to succeed.

In the use of incentives in teaching and learning the following opoints musty be taken into consideration by the teacher:

1)     The teacher must bear in mind that the incentives toward which pupils strive are quite different from those which the teacher would think desirable.

2)     The teacher should  not consider themselves  as the sole mediators of all rewards and punishment in the classroom.

3)     The ultimate goal of teaching and learning should  not center exclusively around ho many facts have been learned by around the kinds of motives  and  incentives pupils learn.

4)     The strength of  social approval as an incentive should  be in proportion to need  for attention and social recognition of the group and the teacher.

5)     Any school incentives must be considered in terms of its total effect to the learner and upon other kinds of learning.

6)     The use of individual competition must be minimized. Competition if too intense will lead to emotional disturbance and interface with social adjustment. Group competition may be used more often. We need cooperation rather than competition.

The Use of Devices or Audio-Visual Aids

                It is generally accepted that the best learning takes place when the greatest number of senses are stimulated. The use of devices or audio-visual materials will stimulate the greatest number of senses. For this reason, good teachers have always used devices or audio-visual materials.  A device is any means other than the subject –matter itself, that is employed by the teacher in presenting the subject  -matter to the learner.

               The modern pupil is literally surrounded pupil is literally surrounded with endless profusion of aids to his learning, such as workbooks, drill cards, graphs, picture, maps, slides, film strips, motion pictures, radio and exhibits of all kinds. Television also offer great possibilities for use in the classroom. This situation grows out of the demands of an enriched and diversified curriculum and of the urge to vitalize instruction by providing a boarder background of experience for the pupils and means of adjusting learning to the differences in interest and aptitudes of children.

          In brief the uses of visual and audio-visual devices maybe given as follows:

1. To challenge the attention of the pupils.
2. To stimulate the imagination and develop the mental imagery of the pupils.
3. To facilitate the understanding of the pupils
4. To provide incentive for action
5. To develop the ability to listen

Other Forms of Visual Aids

          There are other forms of visual aids which can be used to stimulate students interest and to facilitate their understanding. The other forms of visual devices useful in teaching and learning are the follows:

1. Demonstration – dramatization and lecture-demonstration are good examples.
2. Field trips – science study trips, excursions, visit to factories, museums, government institution and to places of historical interest fall under field trips.
3. Laboratory experiments – experiments conducted by the students in the classroom through the direction and guidance of the teacher.

Classification of Device

          The classification of devices helps one to see clearly their nature and understand better the criteria that should guide their selection. The device maybe classified into:

1. Extrinsic
2. Intrinsic

Nutt classified instructional devices into two types namely:

1. Material devices
2. Mental devices

Bossing classified visual materials into two groups from the viewpoint of usage – those available within the classroom and those out of the classroom. The examples given are:

1. Classrooms visual aids – pictures, semi pictorial devices such as maps, globes, models and blackboards
2. Field and excursion visual aids – nature study, field factory, commercial establishments, civic institutions, and places of historical interest.

Criteria Governing the Selection of Devices

1.     A device should always be a means of helping the pupil learn the particular subject-matter presented.

2.     A device should be adapted to meet the individual needs of the pupils.

3.     Device should not be too numerous enough to permit selection by both teacher and learner; their helpfulness or lack of it should be looked into.

4.     Devices should not be too numerous.

5.     Device should be economical.

6.     Devices should not be mere attraction.

7.     Device should be readily usable.

8.     Device should be adapted to the subject-matter and to the goals to be secured through the mastery of the subject-matter

General Suggestion for the Use of Devices

          Some general suggestions to guide the teacher in his use of instructional devices are as follows:

1. The order or system of the use of instructional devices should be well planned by the teacher.
2. The teaching device should serve some vital purpose well established in advance.
3. The teacher should use a teaching device judiciously.
4. The teacher should be sure that the teaching devices are within the view of all members of the class.
5. The teacher should use various types of devices.
6. The teacher must bear in mind that device are not required in all types of leaning, except when the teacher is working with a section of dull pupils.
7. The teacher must not consider devices as a substitute for teaching procedure or method.
8. The teacher should not consider devices as ends in themselves but as means to an end.
9. The teacher must bear in mind that no one device is effective for all types of learning and in all situations.
10. The teacher should not use devices as mere tricks.

Important Points Concerning Motivation

          Motivation is essential in any teaching and learning situation. Knowledge of motivation is therefore fundamental to the teacher to make schoolwork interesting to the learner. To make teaching and learning effective, the following points concerning motivation must be taken into consideration.

1. The principles of motivation state that the learner must be motivated before learning takes place.
2. Motivation is basic to learning and therefore it should be made an integral part of the teaching and learning processes.
3. Motives and incentives are potent factors in motivation.
4. Motivation of learning is one of the basic essentials of any set of educative experience.
5. Motivation is more effective if positive stimulation in the form of praise and rewards is given rather than negative stimulation in the form of blame and punishment.
6. Competition and rivalry are often used as drives to stimulate learning.
7. Continuous motivation is essential in developing concentration of attention.
8. Motivation is important, not only as an energizer and director of learning, but as a habit-system in itself.
9. Motivation is more effective if it is based on immediate goals rather than on remote goals or objectives.

10. Motivation is effective if it is self-initiated.

11.Motivation is effective if it employs a variety of kinds of motivational devices and techniques and a variety of instructional materials.

Good Grooming for Women

        Your daily appearance, down to the last detail, reveals to others at a glance, a great deal about your personality. If you pay attention to every aspect of good grooming, to personal cleanliness, to appropriate clothing, you will look clean, neat and smart. You will not only make a favorable impression on others but you will be free from concern about your appearance so that you can be relaxed and poised. You will be more “employable” and more “promotable”.

Personal Cleanliness

Like other valuable personal assets, cleanliness cannot be taken for grated. Advertisements warn us that “even your best friend wont tell you if you are offending by bad breath or body odor. Avoid too-hot or too-cold water. Use a mild soap – and completely rinse off all the soap. Finish with cool or lukewarm water in order to close the body pores.

          Use a reliable deodorant, either one that removes the odor. Deodorants available in powder, experiment until you find the deodorant that suits you best. Then use it!

For use superfluous under arm or leg hair the razor is best. Chemical depilatories often irritate the skin and sometimes cause infection.

          Brush your teeth two or three times a day, if possible. The best time is immediately after a meal, but this not always convenient.

Care of The Skin

The clear complexion depends on inner cleanliness. No mount of scrubbing from the outside will help if the difficulty lies within. Diet, rest, fresh air and exercise will produce and maintain a good skin.

          Blotches and pimples usually are caused by faulty diet or digestive disorders. If a corrected diet does not eliminate these skin blemishes, consult your doctor.

          Caution to sun worshipers – exposure of your skin to the sun speeds up the chronological aging of your skin. It may even cause spotty discolorations, scaly and warty areas that sometimes are found to be precancerous tissue.

          Your skin must be clean to be attractive. Whether your cleanse your face and neck with soap and water or with cosmetics makes little difference. A very dry skin will be more attractive if all the natural oil is not removed, while a very oily skin requires removal of excess oil.

         

How to Apply Make-Up. Cosmetics skillfully applied achieve a fresh natural look and can do much to enhance your best features.

          After cleansing your skin, apply a light coat of powder base. For best results, choose a powder base one shade darker than your skin tone.

          Use paste or liquid rough sparingly. Rouge is used to accent the upper part of your face. If it is blended too low on the cheekbones it gives your face drawn down look. The safest color choices are the lighter shades of pink or coral which give the most youthful coloring.

          In perfumes, colognes, and after bath scents, choose related odors or matched perfume kits. Use perfume sparingly. Excessively heavy scents are oppressive and mark you as a person of poor taste.

          Eye make-up used conservatively and skillfully can add to the beauty of our eyes. Take care the eye shadow is feathered lightly at the extreme outer side so that the color merges with the skin tone, without leaving a line of demarcation.

          Brown eye shadow is probably most satisfactory for everyday make-up. Blue and green eye shadows are best used, if at all, for evening occasions.

          To darken and define the eyebrows used a sharply pointed eyebrow pencil. Finish by brushing the brows again.

          Mascara lightly applied to the upper eyelashes intensifies eye color and makes your eyes appear larger. Avoid a beaded, heavily made-up, theatrical appearance. Eye make-up, like all other make-up, is better avoided entirely if it is not applied carefully to achieve a natural look.

          Lipstick can be more attractively and accurately applied by outlining the lips with a well-sharpened lip liner or a lipstick brush.

          You should not need to re-define your lip line for many hours, and touching up your lips is easily and accurately done. Lipstick applied in this manner stays on longer and offers the possibility of reshaping your lips slightly when reshaping will improve your mouth.

Care of The Hair

Your hair is the natural frame for your face. Clean hair, becomingly styled, can add the finishing touch to your costume. Hat styles and modifications of necklines correspond with current hair fashions. An out-ot-date hairdo dates you as surely as does last year hat.

          Beautiful hair starts with diet, as do other elements of physical beauty. Your hair reflects your general health, and the perfection of new growth depends on good care and on your physical condition. The first step toward beautiful hair is cleanliness.

          Brush your hair every night. Pick up a small section at a time and draw the brush all the way to the ends of the hair. Use a natural-bristle brush. Nylon bristles are harsher to the scalp and in some cases can damage the hair follicles. Let your head drop down, then brush. This position has two advantages. First, the blood rushes to your head, and circulation is improved, which is one of the reasons for brushing in the first place. Second you can brush your hair longer because your arms do not tire so quickly. The relaxation you get in the process should be an inducement to better care of your hair.

          Shampoo your hair every week or ten days. Always use a liquid or cream shampoo. Do not uses bar soap, for bits of soap are rubbed up under the little scales that grow on the hair, and are almost impossible to remove.

          Your haircut is the basic essential for an attractive coiffure. Experiment until you find a hair-dresser who cuts you hair the way you like it and in the most be coming fashion.

          Toady many women set their own hair. Current magazines print diagrams showing exactly how to block and set your hair to achieve the latest hair styles. Learn to use these diagrams.

Care of The Hands

 Your hands are always on exhibition. Well-cared for hands and manicured nails help greatly in creating a favorable impression. They also can help you to be more confident and natural in your relations with others. Your other attractive qualities will be minimized if you must hide short, bitten nails.

          Keep your nails shaped, short, clean, and well manicured. Be sure that the polish always covers the nail. Cultivate the habit of giving a little attention to your hands every day, with a complete manicure once a week.

Aids to Good Grooming

 Keep your sewing box, your shoeshine kit and other grooming aids in convenient places. You will be surprised to fine how much easier these tasks seem and how much more readily you do them if the required materials are organized and within easy reach.

          A clothes brush also should be handy for use just before you leave your room. Loose hair or dandruff on your shoulders marks you as a careless person. Look quickly in a full length mirror to see that the seams of your hose are straight and that your slip does not show.

          The details so essential to good grooming do not take a great deal of time when done daily. Keeping your clothes clean and ready for wear is not a heavy task unless you allow a great deal of laundry to accumulate. Done bit by bit, washing clothes becomes a regular part of your routine and can even be a pleasant diversion from other duties.

          Before storing your off-season wardrobe, look over the garments for needed repairs, have them cleaned and put them in mothproof bags or in a cedar chest. This is a good time to take stock of your clothes, discard those that you no longer wear, and plan the replacements that you will need for the next season.

Secrets of Good Grooming

1. To minimize a large nose, see that your hair is styled with large waves and curls, with the ends of the hair low. Also, brush your hair away from your face.

2. To conceal a low hairline, part the hair higher on your head. Use a straight center part or a part parallel to your eyebrows, and wear short bangs.

3. Before changing to a new hairdo, experiment with some false pieces to see how you like the change.

4. If perspiration on your hands causes you embarrassment when you dance, use a little antiperspirant on your palms before going out.

5. To reduce the hips, stand sidewise to a wall and bump ten minutes daily on each side.

6. To prolong the life of a girdle, hang it by the garters to dry after washing.

7. If you want to look chic Bermudas or shorts, exercise to reduce fat from the inner knee. Lie on your back. Alternately extend each leg straight up and from the letters of the alphabet with your toes.

8. If you have a good tan expert for strap marks, use an antiseptic lotion first and then cover the strap marks with tinted make-up base.

9. “Press” a velvet or velveteen garment by hanging it in a stem-filled bathroom. To remove lint draw the sticky side of cellophane tape across the fabric.

10. If your sweaters shed fuzz, wrap them in a cloth and put them in the refrigerator overnight.

11. Freshen cloth-lined purses by wiping the inside with a cloth dampened with cologne.

12. If a hat veil needs pressing in a hurry, pull it quickly back and fort over a lighted lamp bulb.

Vocational and Technical Education

Technical Assistance to Help People Help Themselves

          Leaders who are concerned with giving aid to barrios and villages all over the Philippines should encourage the people to help themselves.

1. Any technical aid which does not reach the majority of the people who are the producers of wealth will fail to bear fruit in increased production and better standards of living. Technical assistance which remains in the form of reports and recommendations, programs, and blue prints of economic development and rural reconstruction will amount to a waste of effort and resources leading to frustration and disillusionment.

2. The new technology does not only need to be imported from the advance countries, but should become part of the economic life of the peoples in the underdeveloped countries. It is not something which can be passed on from one government to another, but something that should enter into the ways of living and working of the masses of the people.

3. Unless the higher income per capita means a higher standard of living for the majority of the people the aim of economic development will not be achieved. The result may only mean the widening of the gap between the rich minority who have grown richer and the poorer majority whose poverty would then appear more glaring and all the more burdensome.

4. The rise in national; income must express itself in better food, clothing, and shelter, better health, better education, and a more decent and active life for the great majority of the people.

5. In matters of economic development. Governments and peoples cannot always be considered identical. It is a mistake to give too much Attention to the governments representing forces which are sooner or later defined to disappear and too little attention to the people. For what does it profit you to win all governments of the underdeveloped world and lose the people.

6. Underdeveloped countries would like to see concrete results in the form of new methods of production, new factories, new enterprises and new irrigation system, and hydroelectric plants.

7. Care should be taken that technical and financial assistance will not result in benefits to a reactionary and corrupt group or class and leave the majority of the people in poverty.

8. It is only when people have a decent way of life to defend that they will struggle to preserve it. But if they are poor and miserable, they will be indifferent to the world struggle and can easily be led to participate in any movement that promises improvement of their condition.

5. Workers’ Education

          The Labor Education Center of the University of the Philippines can claim a number of accomplishments, not the least of which is, to unite a number of the trade union movements and to make many of the workers feel that, united and determined, they do not have to depend upon lawyers and politicians to have their own rights respected by their employers.

          There is still far to go and much to do to educate all the workers about their rights and responsibilities and to encourage them to work together in order to enable them to bargain effectively and honorably with representatives of management. But gradually, the cause of united labor in the Philippines is being advance to the province and out of the way place. There still too much fragmentation and division among workers who through ignorance and selfishness tend to work for their individual interest to the detriment of the ultimate goal, which is to improve their earning power and standards of living as a group and as individuals.

          The center has two kinds of staff – the regular staff, who work in Diliman, and the stand-by staff, who are recruited from the outside labor unions, business and industry, and the various branches of government social security the economic and social council, education the universities and any other sources which may have the kind of men needed to handle the work that is required; such as teaching the workers procedures  of collective bargaining, accounting of union funds labor legislation, management of cooperatives providing for workers welfare or any other subject of interest to labor unions in any part of the country.

          So impressive has been the achievement of the Center that the International Cooperation Administration (ICA) provide funds for the construction of a $ 240,000-building “without counterpart funds and without any strings attached to the aid.” The fact is that, according to the director the amount asked for was $160,000, but the additional amount was most welcome because additional rooms will be provided to enable to center to function more effectively.

6. Supervision of Occupational Training Programs

          It goes without saying that the present method – which is no method at all of occupational training in the Philippines, is highly unsatisfactory. It seldom result in the proper matching of the three elements of efficient production: namely, the needs of society for different types and levels of trained personnel, the capacities and aptitudes of the trainees, and the quality and amount of training provided. Without the benefit of a periodic survey of occupational needs, no one knows, whether there are too many engineers or nurses. Mere interest in a profession or vocation is no guarantee that the individual will succeed in it. More vocational or professional training facilities, if they are of the wrong kind or if there are too many of them, will complicate rather than solve the problem. It will result in intellectual unemployment and in many occupational misfits. Eventually, it will lead to dissatisfactory among people who should be working to help improve the standard of living of all. Because of the failure of thousands of graduates of our schools, colleges, and universities to find employment, they and their families are dissatisfied.

Training for Specific Occupational

1. Police Training

          The improvement of the police forces is a practical and necessary service which can be established in the Philippines at relatively little cost compared to the tremendous good that will result from it. But before such a service can be effected nationally, police work must first of all be established such as a career on a civil service basis, which is true in Thailand. It is different in our country where in the various towns every new mayor has a new set of policemen who in many cases are not selected according to their merit. They are also paid very meager salaries and since their appointment is political their eye is not be very strict in enforcing ordinance for the simple reason that they do not offend the very persons who elected the mayor. There are some exceptions, of course.

2. Domestic Service as a Career

          One of the most significant social developments in recent years in Europe and America is the recognition given to domestic service as a career like teaching or law. For nearly fifty years there has been an international federation the purpose of which is to maintain and improve standards of education for housekeeping and to protect the rights of employed housekeepers. This development is the more significant because career for women is a comparatively modern conception. Lately has come an acceptance of marriage and homemaking as a career, while the inclusion of domestic work in the homes of others among the worthwhile careers open to girls is a development of the last few years.

3. Training of Tourist Guides

          A course for tourist guides which consist of 16 lectures and five practical demonstrations on Saturday afternoons is designed to give basic training in the practical work of guides in the United Kingdom. Students are carefully selected from among men and women who have the right background and temperament for guide lecturing. Students will be expected to have a working knowledge of English history, geography, topography, national and local government, art and architecture and to be well informed on current exhibitions and events likely to be of interest to visitors. The course last for n early three months.

          Some implications of the training course for guide-lecturing in the United Kingdom can be drawn for our work in the Philippines along similar and allied lines.

          First, after hearing a number of guides for tourist in manila-who are very few indeed, so few that it is difficult to find them when they are needed-I believe we should follow the English scheme of training guide lectures.

          Second, as a means of promoting tourism in the Philippines, which is the aim of the tourist bureau and the desire of our thousands of businessmen all over the country, such a training scheme should be effective.

          Third, we can well start tourism in our schools. In every community there are interesting place from the geographic, economic, artistic, health as well as historical standpoints.

          UNESCO has published a number of volumes on the educational use of museums by pupils and students in different grades. These volumes are available at the UNESCO National Commission of the Philippines, at the RFC building in Aduana, and at the UNESCO Field Science Office, United Nations Building, Padre Faura Street, Manila or they may be purchased from a bookseller in Manila.

          Fifth, I should like to draw the attention of our leaders and teachers of vocational and professional courses to the principle that is indicated at the outset in regard to the training course for guides in England.

4. Homemaking Education in the Philippines

          Since the establishment of the present system of education more than fifty years ago, homemaking has been a very important part of the education of Filipino youth, at the first called domestic science it was given to girls only but later certain phases of home and family like education were offered to boys as well. It is believed that unless husbands have an understanding of their duties and responsibilities in homemaking the best efforts of their wives will fail to result in the maximum happiness and well-being of the family. The lead in this movement was started be fore the war in the high school department of the University of the Philippines, where boys and girls discussed together the problems of home and family shared experience in doing home chores-coking and housekeeping-and planning of home budgets.

          A bee project is an example of a hobby which pays. It needs little space and capital to start and one derives so much benefit from the work devoted to it. Here are some facts about bee culture in Paris.

          1. A bee project may be carried out under trees in the yard, and with as little as 3,500 francs which is the price of a box containing 20,000 bees and queen bee.

          2. There is very little work involve no more than waiting for the proverbial coconut to fall, for after the boxes are installed, the bees do all the work except for the extraction of one third of the honey and for putting water and floating corks in a shallow vessel-the bees alight on the corks to drink from the pan.

          3. The bees, besides giving honey increase fruit crops tremendously and also give pollen which is both food and medicine. The bees on coming home from their errands drop some of the pollens near the beehive. This pollen is collected and eaten or sold to drugstore at 1,000 francs (P6.00) a kilo. Both the honey and the pollen are food and disease-preventive, besides.

          4. Properly placed in the front yard, a beehive can serve in place of a ferocious dog to protect the family and in the backyard to keep away robbers. The bees know their keepers whom they do not sting but woe to strangers w no such calendar:

          April-May: Plowing the area four or five times, incorporating 20-30 carts loads of compost or cattle manure. Desuckering is attended to where there are already banana plants.

          June-July: Pits are dug, spaced at six feet both ways in case of dwarf varieties and eight feet in the case of toll ones. Plant three month old sword suckers or selected rhizomes and bits of rhizomes.

          August: Give first digging to the entire area. Replace dead suckers. Harvest of early varieties leaving only one good sucker produces at the time of the flowering of mother plant.

          September-October: Deepening drainage canals, application of manure or compost desuckering and earthing up operations for June-July planting late planting of certain varieties.

            November-December: Harvest period at its peak; application of second dose of manure for the June-July planted crop; planting fresh perennial areas and deep digging operations with desuckering and removal of suckers for sake.

          December-January: Third digging for wet land bananas, application of fertilizers. Earthling up the plants, irrigation.

          January-June: Dry season. Irrigate once in three or four days or as often as necessary. Remove unwanted suckers up to the time of flowering. Maintain only one sucker to follow.

          June-September: Complete harvest of dwarf varieties commenced in May-June. Harvest of tall varieties completed at the end of September.

Increased Production for Better Nutrition

          Production in bananas as in other crops varies with the effort and wisdom of cultivation, manuring, watering and irrigation, control of disease and pest, selection of suckers, plant rotation, following a plant calendar suited to the climate, and other specific procedures.

         

9. Agriculture in Theory and Practice

          In nine cases out of ten the only practical suggestion that our educational critics are ready to make if asked to do so is something like this: “Establish more vocational schools to teach the pupils to work.”

D. Rural Education

1. General Trends

          I have just complete a study of the situation of rural education and the training of rural school teachers in 35 countries a large number of terrorist on all continents, and in faraway islands and in all region of the world. Our thousands of barrio teachers would be happy to know what I have discovered.

          1. With rare excerptions the world over, there are two kinds of civilization the city or urban and the rural. Each has its own standards of living its own sense of values and its measures of propriety. Truly said the rural people are the backbone of a nation for they not only constitute from sixty to eighty percent of the population but they also pay the bulk of taxes. On the other hand, they receive considerably less in benefits be it in the form education health facilities transportation and communication not top mentioned the other convenience and amenities of life such as electricity, gas, water system, telephone radio and television or even the “national language.” There are only two occasions when the rural people receive any attention when the taxes are collected and during election campaigns. Otherwise they are left alone to shift for theselve.

          2. In the field of education discrimination against the rural people is well known. The schools are generally inferior in quality and inadequate as to number and space. In many places they are mere shacks without the floor except the ground no ventilation except as the air may come through the door which is often closed especially during the winter without benches, blackboards, not to mention textbooks and other teaching materials. In some schools even in France and the United States there are no toilets or what there are many be dilapidated and unsanitary. Instruction is of course meager and formal and often abbreviated both as to length of the school year and as to school hours. The pupils may have only the sun to tell the time by and in the rainy season they are often late in coming and have to return home early to avoid being benighted. Many of them get wet on their way to school and have to turn right back home. They come to school barefooted and bareheaded and probably without breakfast.

          3. Still worse, half of the worlds children of school age are without school facilities of any kind and the great majority of these, running into 150 million, come from rural areas. Thus, the children who need the best education have either none of it or the worst that may be found.

          4. Teachers from rural areas are generally speaking, ill prepared for their work, probably just a little ahead of their classes, without professional background and little cultural training. In the majority of cases there are young people mostly women who are just beginning in their career if it maybe called a career. They are there only temporarily as for the most part they look than their colleagues in cities in spite of the fact that they work more and have greater responsibilities. For they not only teach all classes up to eight grades and all the subjects but they may also be expected to be walking encyclopedia and inspiration of the adult people who are generally illiterate and have no one else to look up to for guidance and leadership. Rural school teachers are jacks of all grades. They are sanitarians, agriculturist, social workers, nurse, health inspectors, spiritual guides and recreation managers all in one. They may even be called upon to decide disputes. They are expected to know everything and be everything to all men.

          5. Supervision of teaching is often nil in rural schools, which are visited and inspected maybe once a year if ever by persons who are also ill-prepared for their work. So teaching what there is of it may be nothing more than the teachers asking question for the pupils to answer in concert by reading what the books says . In many places in Latin America especially, rural school teachers may not have schools or classes to teach at all or where there are such schools and classes there may be teachers or what teachers there are assigned to them may not want to teach there, but because there are no inspector to find out the teachers assigned there may draw their salaries.

          6. Then, of course, where there are schools and teachers the pupils may stay in school for only a very short time – one year or two at the most of irregular attendance. In a short time for lack of practice and reading material they revert to illiteracy and join the adult illiterates who constitute half of the world’s population. Ignorance, disease, poverty that is the lot of most of the people in rural areas.  As the backbone of their countries they cannot very strong since they have little or no participation in their government. As one writer put it, of the activity known as politics and government they have no participation except to support it with their taxes which they cannot afford to pay.